Solutions A History of Modern Psychology - 10th Edition - Chapter 15

15.1 Describe the accomplishments, failures, and ultimate fates of the major schools of thought in psychology.
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15.2 What were the precursors of cognitive psychology?
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15.3 How did the changing Zeitgeist in physics influence cognitive psychology?
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15.4 What were the early signs of a cognitive revolution in psychology?
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15.5 What personal factors motivated Miller and Neisser?
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15.6 In what ways did cognitive psychology differ from behavioral psychology?
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15.7 What does the term “ecological validity” mean?
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15.8 Discuss the shift from clocks to computers as metaphors for the mind.
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15.9 What practical need in World War II led to the development of the modern computer? What was ENIAC?
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15.10 What did the most famous chess match of the twentieth century tell us about the ability of machines to think?
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15.11 How are the Turing Test and the Chinese Room problem used to examine the proposition that computers can think?
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15.12 Discuss three ways in which cognitive psychology differs from behaviorism.
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15.13 Describe cognitive neuroscience and the techniques used to map the brain.
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15.14 How does cognitive neuroscience relate to earlier attempts to explain brain functioning?
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15.15 What is neuroprosthetics and how does it involve cognitive neuroscience?
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15.16 What are the limitations to the use of introspection in cognitive psychology?
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15.17 In what ways does the current version of the cognitive unconscious differ from the Freudian view of the unconscious?
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15.18 Describe the current view of animal cognition.
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15.19 In your opinion, are animals capable of cognitive activities, or are we attributing human functions to them that they do not really possess?
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15.20 How does evidence favoring the existence of personality in animals support Darwin’s notion of evolution and the field of evolutionary psychology?
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15.21 Describe what is meant by the terms “embedded cognition” and “cognitive overload.”
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15.22 What is the present status of cognitive psychology?
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15.23 Describe the relationship between evolutionary psychology and cognitive psychology. Which one draws upon the other?
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15.24 In your opinion, has psychology reached the stage of a unified paradigm that unites all the different approaches to psychology? Do you think evolutionary psychology is likely to be the final stage in the fractious and fragmented history of the field?
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Solutions A History of Modern Psychology - 10th Edition - Chapter 13

13.1 According to Freud, what were the three great shocks in history that were delivered to the collective human ego?
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13.2 Describe the historical development of psychoanalysis relative to the other schools of thought in psychology.
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13.3 What was the role of the unconscious in structuralism, functionalism, and behaviorism?
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13.4 Describe the theories of the unconscious developed by Leibnitz and Herbart.
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13.5 Discuss two major sources of influence on the psychoanalytic movement.
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13.6 How were mentally ill persons dealt with before the time of Freud?
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13.7 In what ways was Freud influenced by Mesmer and by Charcot?
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13.8 What was the Emmanuel Movement? How did it influence the acceptance of psychoanalysis in the United States?
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13.9 Discuss the influences of evolutionary theory and of the notion of mechanism on the development of psychoanalysis.
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13.10 In what ways was psychoanalysis influenced by Freud’s own childhood experiences and by his own views on sexuality?
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13.11 Why was the case of Anna O. of such importance in Freud’s thinking?
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13.12 What was the controversy about Freud’s view of childhood seduction experiences?
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13.13 Describe the psychosexual stages of development.
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13.14 Define repression, instinct, id, ego, and superego. What are the life instincts and the death instinct?
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13.15 What is the therapeutic significance of free association, of resistances, and of repression?
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13.16 In what ways do Freud’s proposed levels of personality differ from one another? Why are they so often in conflict?
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13.17 What is the relationship between psychoanalysis and mainstream academic psychology?
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13.18 How did Freud attempt to explain mental processes in mechanistic and deterministic terms?
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13.19 Describe the results of attempts to test Freudian concepts experimentally.
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13.20 What criticisms have been made of Freud’s methods for collecting data? How did Freud believe his concepts should be tested?
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13.21 What, in general, has been the impact of psychoanalysis on psychology and on popular culture?
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13.22 Do you believe that Freud was correct when he included himself in the list of the three people who changed the world?
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Solutions A History of Modern Psychology - 10th Edition - Chapter 14

14.1 What personal experiences influenced Maslow’s approach to psychology?
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14.2 In what ways did the neo-Freudians change Freudian psychoanalysis?
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14.3 How did the changing Zeitgeist in social science influence the later development of psychoanalysis?
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14.4 Describe Anna Freud’s relationship with her father. What changes did she introduce into psychoanalysis?
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14.5 To what does the word object refer in object relations theory?
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14.6 How did the approaches of Melanie Klein and Heinz Kohut differ from each other, and from Freudian psychoanalysis?
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14.7 In what ways did Jung’s life experiences influence his analytical psychology?
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14.8 Describe the Jungian concepts of the collective unconscious and the archetypes.
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14.9 How did Jung’s analytical psychology differ from Freudian psychoanalysis?
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14.10 On what issues did Adler and Freud disagree?
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14.11 Explain what Adler meant by “style of life.” According to Adler’s theory, how do inferiority feelings develop?
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14.12 What lasting contributions to psychology have been made by Jung and by Adler?
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14.13 How were Horney’s views of personality influenced by her childhood experiences?
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14.14 In what ways did Freud and Horney differ in their views of feminine psychology?
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14.15 Explain Horney’s concepts of basic anxiety, neurotic needs, and idealized self-image.
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14.16 On what grounds did the humanistic psychologists criticize behaviorism and psychoanalysis?
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14.17 Compare the views of Maslow and Rogers on self-actualization and the characteristics of the psychologically healthy person.
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14.18 On what grounds have the theories of Maslow and Rogers been criticized?
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14.19 For what reasons did humanistic psychology fail to reach its goal of transforming psychology?
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14.20 In your opinion, will the positive psychology movement have a more lasting influence on the field than the humanistic psychology movement did? Why or why not?
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14.21 What factors have been shown to affect subjective well-being? What factors can you list that influence your own happiness?
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Solutions A History of Modern Psychology - 10th Edition - Chapter 12

12.1 Explain the differences between the Gestalt and behaviorist revolts against Wundtian psychology.
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12.2 What did the Gestalt psychologists mean by the expressions “the whole is different from the sum of its parts” and “there is more to perception than meets the eye?”
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12.3 If you looked at a book on a table and said, “I see a book on the table,” what error would you be committing, according to Titchener?
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12.4 Describe the antecedent influences on Gestalt psychology.
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12.5 How did the Zeitgeist in physics change toward the end of the nineteenth century? How did that change influence Gestalt psychology?
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12.6 What is the phi phenomenon? How is it produced? Why couldn’t the phi phenomenon be explained by Wundt’s psychology?
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12.7 Why did some people mistakenly assume that Gestalt psychology dealt only with perception?
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12.8 Describe some of the principles of perceptual organization.
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12.9 How do studies of perceptual constancies support the Gestalt viewpoint?
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12.10 Why has the word Gestalt caused problems for the movement?
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12.11 Give an example of Köhler’s research on insight on the island of Tenerife.
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12.12 How does insight learning differ fromthe trial-anderror learning described by Thorndike?
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12.13 How did Wertheimer apply Gestalt principles of learning to creative thinking in humans?
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12.14 How does isomorphism relate perception to underlying neurological correlates?
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12.15 What factors impeded the acceptance of Gestalt psychology in the United States?
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12.16 On what grounds has Gestalt psychology been criticized?
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12.17 On what grounds did Gestalt psychologists criticize behaviorism?
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12.18 Describe Lewin’s concept of a field theory and tell how it was influenced by physics.
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12.19 How does field theory deal with motivation and with social psychology? What is social action research?
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12.20 In what ways did Gestalt psychology affect psychology as a whole?
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Solutions A History of Modern Psychology - 10th Edition - Chapter 11

11.1 What does Priscilla the Fastidious Pig have to do with the history of psychology? By what techniques was this animal trained?
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11.2 Describe the three stages in the evolution of the behaviorist school of thought.
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11.3 Which psychologists can be classified as neobehaviorists? On what major points did they agree?
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11.4 What was operationism and how did it influence the neobehaviorists of the 1920s and 1930s?
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11.5 What are pseudo-problems? Why was the notion of pseudo-problems so appealing to behaviorists?
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11.6 Give an example of an intervening variable. Describe how it can be defined operationally.
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11.7 What did Tolman mean by purposive behaviorism?
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11.8 How did Hull’s behaviorism differ from the views of Watson and Tolman?
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11.9 What role did the spirit of mechanism play in Hull’s approach to behaviorism?
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11.10 Define Hull’s concepts of primary and secondary drives and primary and secondary reinforcement.
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11.11 What is the hypothetico-deductive method? List some criticisms of Hull’s system.
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11.12 Describe Skinner’s views on theorizing, the mechanistic spirit, intervening variables, and the use of statistics.
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11.13 Distinguish between operant and respondent conditioning. How is operant conditioning used to modify behavior?
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11.14 What is Skinner’s law of acquisition? How did it differ from Thorndike’s and Hull’s positions on learning?
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11.15 What is the difference between fixed-interval and fixed-ratio reinforcement schedules? Give a few examples of each.
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11.16 How would you apply the method of successive approximation to train a dog to walk in a circle?
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11.17 On what grounds has Skinner’s system been criticized?
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11.18 How do Bandura’s and Rotter’s views on cognitive factors differ from Skinner’s views?
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11.19 How is modeling used to change behavior? Give an example.
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11.20 How do people high in self-efficacy differ from people low in self-efficacy?
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11.21 Distinguish between self-efficacy and locus of control in terms of their effects on behavior.
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Solutions A History of Modern Psychology - 10th Edition - Chapter 10

10.1 What ethical and moral considerations do you think were involved in the Little Albert study?
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10.2 How did Watson establish a conditioned emotional response in Albert? Did that response generalize to other stimuli? If so, to what kind of stimuli?
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10.3 WasWatson concerned about the practical value of behaviorism? If your answer is yes, to what areas of everyday life did he apply his findings?
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10.4 Describe Watson’s approach to child rearing. What were the results of that approach within his family?
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10.5 In Watson’s 1913 article, what criticisms did he make of structuralism and functionalism? On what basis did he argue that applied psychology could be called scientific?
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10.6 How were Watson’s ideas received by the younger generation of psychologists?
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10.7 What research methods did Watson accept for a scientific psychology?
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10.8 Why was Watson’s use of verbal reports considered to be controversial?
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10.9 How did the behaviorists’ view of the role and task of human subjects differ from that of the introspectionists?
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10.10 Discuss how Watson’s subject matter and methodology continued the atomistic, mechanistic, empiricistic tradition.
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10.11 How did Watson distinguish between responses and acts? How did he distinguish between explicit and implicit responses?
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10.12 Describe Watson’s views on instinct and thought processes.
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10.13 How do the studies of Albert and Peter support Watson’s ideas on the role of learning in emotion?
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10.14 Explain the reasons for behaviorism’s popular appeal.
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10.15 Describe Lashley’s law of mass action and principle of equipotentiality.
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10.16 In what way did Lashley’s research results discredit a portion of Watson’s system?
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10.17 Do you think Watson’s behaviorism would have become so popular without the earlier work of the functional psychologists? Explain your answer.
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10.18 On what grounds did McDougall criticize Watson’s form of behaviorism?
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Solutions A History of Modern Psychology - 10th Edition - Chapter 9

9.1 Why was Clever Hans considered such a sensation throughout the Western world?
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9.2 In what ways had psychology changed by the second decade of the twentieth century?
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9.3 Describe the basic tenets of Watson’s behaviorism and show how they differed from the positions of Wundt and Titchener.
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9.4 Why was Watson so opposed to the study of consciousness and the method of introspection?
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9.5 What were the three major forces Watson brought together to form his new psychology?
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9.6 What role did positivism play in the scientific Zeitgeist of the twentieth century?
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9.7 Describe the development of animal psychology since the work of Romanes and Morgan. Why was it difficult to be an animal psychologist?
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9.8 In what ways did Loeb, Washburn, Small, and Turner influence the new animal psychology?
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9.9 Discuss the impact of the Clever Hans incident on animal psychology. What did Pfungst’s experiments demonstrate?
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9.10 Relate Thorndike’s connectionism to the older philosophical notion of association.
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9.11 Describe Thorndike’s puzzle-box research and the laws of learning suggested by the results.
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9.12 Discuss the overall significance for the development of behaviorism of Thorndike’s research on human and animal learning.
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9.13 Describe Pavlov’s initial focus on mentalistic experiences and his attempts to control outside influences on his research.
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9.14 How would you design an experiment to condition a rabbit to salivate to the ringing of a cell phone?
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9.15 How did Pavlov’s work influence Watson’s behaviorism?
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9.16 Compare Pavlov’s concept of conditioned reflex with Bekhterev’s associated reflex.
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9.17 What is Twitmyer’s experience of interest to historians of psychology?
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9.18 Discuss the Zeitgeist in American psychology in the second decade of the twentieth century with reference to ideas promoted by the structuralists and functionalists.
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9.19 How did the functionalist school influence Watson’s behaviorism?
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Solutions A History of Modern Psychology - 10th Edition - Chapter 8

8.1 What was the significance for psychology of the Coca-Cola trial and Hollingworth’s research?
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8.2 Why did the approaches to psychology pursued by Wundt and by Titchener fail to survive in the United States?
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8.3 In what ways did psychology grow and prosper in the United States in the period from 1880 to 1900? Give specific examples.
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8.4 How did economic forces influence the development of applied psychology? Do you think applied psychology would have developed when it did without these forces?
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8.5 How did Cattell’s work alter the nature of American psychology? How did he promote psychology to the public?
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8.6 Compare the approaches of Cattell and Binet to the development of mental tests.
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8.7 Describe the impact of World War I on the testing movement.
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8.8 Define the concepts of mental age and IQ. How are they calculated?
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8.9 Why did some organizations abandon the use of psychological tests in the 1920s despite their popularity?
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8.10 How were tests used in the United States to support the notion of racial differences in intelligence and the alleged inferiority of immigrants?
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8.11 In your opinion, are intelligence tests biased against members of minority groups? Defend your answer.
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8.12 Discuss the role of women in the testing movement. Why was their work at a professional disadvantage?
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8.13 How did the work of Witmer and Münsterberg influence the growth of clinical psychology?
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8.14 How did Witmer and Münsterberg differ in their views of clinical psychology?
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8.15 Discuss the roles of Scott and Münsterberg in the origin of industrial-organizational psychology.
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8.16 How was industrial-organizational psychology affected by the Hawthorne studies and the wars?
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8.17 What role did women play in the development of industrial-organizational psychology?
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8.18 Describe Münsterberg’s contributions to forensic psychology.
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8.19 Why were Münsterberg’s outspoken views often unpopular with other psychologists? How did he come to be a despised figure among the general public?
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8.20 Compare the growth and popularity of applied psychology in the 1920s, the 1930s, and the period since the end of World War II.
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Solutions A History of Modern Psychology - 10th Edition - Chapter 7

7.1 Describe Spencer’s notion of social Darwinism.
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7.2 Why was the United States so receptive to Spencer’s ideas about social Darwinism?
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7.3 Who extended Darwin’s ideas on evolution to machines? Describe this person’s position on mechanical evolution.
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7.4 Why was the type of calculating machine developed by Babbage in the mid-nineteenth century no longer appropriate by the end of that century?
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7.5 Describe Hollerith’s approach to processing information by machine.
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7.6 What is neurasthenia? What segment of nineteenth-century American society was most likely to be afflicted with neurasthenia?
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7.7 How did the prescribed cures for neurasthenia differ for men and for women?
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7.8 Why was James considered to be the most important American psychologist? Describe his attitude toward laboratory work.
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7.9 How did James’s view of consciousness differ from Wundt’s view? According to James, what was the purpose of consciousness?
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7.10 What methods did James consider appropriate for the study of consciousness? What was the value of pragmatism for the new psychology?
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7.11 According to James, what are the components of a person’s sense of self? What role does clothing seem to play in our sense of self, in James’s view?
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7.12 Describe the variability hypothesis and its influence on the idea of male superiority. How did research by Woolley and Hollingworth refute these ideas?
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7.13 How was the work of G. Stanley Hall influenced by Darwin’s evolutionary theory? Describe Hall’s recapitulation theory of development.
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7.14 What “firsts” in American psychology can be attributed to Hall? Why was he called a genetic psychologist?
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7.15 In what ways did Titchener and Dewey contribute to the founding of functional psychology? Why was there no single form of functionalism as there was a single structuralism?
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7.16 According to Angell, what were functionalism’s three major themes? According to Carr, what is the proper subject matter of psychology?
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7.17 Describe Woodworth’s dynamic psychology and his views on introspection. Did Woodworth consider himself to be a functional psychologist? Why or why not?
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7.18 Compare functionalism’s contributions to psychology with the contributions of structuralism.
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7.19 Why did applied psychology develop under functionalism and not under structuralism?
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Solutions A History of Modern Psychology - 10th Edition - Chapter 6

6.1 Why did some people find it such a disturbing experience to see Jenny the Orangutan in the London Zoo? How did her behavior affect Charles Darwin?
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6.2 What aspects of consciousness did the functionalists deal with?
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6.3 On what grounds did the functionalists protest against Wundt’s psychology and Titchener’s structuralism?
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6.4 Why did it seem inevitable that a theory of evolution would be proposed and accepted by the middle of the nineteenth century? How did the Zeitgeist influence the success of Darwin’s ideas?
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6.5 Explain the approaches to evolution taken by Erasmus Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.
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6.6 How did increasing travel and exploration, and the public fascination with fossils, influence attitudes toward the idea of evolution?
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6.7 Explain how the study of bird beaks supports evolutionary theory.
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6.8 What did Darwin mean when he referred to himself as the “devil’s chaplain” and said that his work was like confessing to murder?
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6.9 How was Darwin’s concept of natural selection influenced by Malthus’s doctrine of population and food supply?
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6.10 Describe the role of Thomas Henry Huxley in promoting Darwin’s theory.
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6.11 In what ways did Darwin’s data and ideas alter the subject matter and methods of psychology?
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6.12 Describe the work of Juan Huarte in anticipating the contributions of Galton.
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6.13 How was Galton’s work on mental tests influenced by Locke’s empiricist view?
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6.14 What statistical tools did Galton develop to measure human characteristics? Describe Galton’s research on hereditary genius.
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6.15 How did Galton study the association of ideas? How did he test for intelligence?
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6.16 How did Darwin’s evolutionary theory stimulate the development of animal psychology? What was Wundt’s initial reaction to this development?
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6.17 Describe the anecdotal method and introspection by analogy. Explain Romanes’s mental ladder.
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6.18 How did Morgan limit the use of introspection by analogy? Which of the following techniques did Morgan use to study the animal mind: (a) collecting anecdotes, (b) experimental studies, (c) the method of extirpation, (d) electrical stimulation?
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Solutions A History of Modern Psychology - 10th Edition - Chapter 5

5.1 Why did some of Titchener’s graduate students swallow rubber tubes, take notebooks to the bathroom, and record their feelings during intercourse?
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5.2 Contrast and compare Titchener’s and Wundt’s approaches to psychology.
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5.3 Describe the paradoxical views of Titchener regarding the place of women in psychology. Did he act to assist them in their careers or discriminate against them?
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5.4 According to Titchener, what is the proper subject matter for psychology? How does it differ from the subject matter of other sciences?
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5.5 What is the stimulus error? Give an example. How, in Titchener’s view, could the stimulus error be avoided?
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5.6 What distinction did Titchener draw between consciousness and mind?
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5.7 Describe Titchener’s method of introspection. How did it differ from Wundt’s?
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5.8 Describe the difference between experience as independent of the experiencing person and experience as dependent on the experiencing person. Give examples. According to Titchener, which type provides the data for psychology?
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5.9 What did Titchener’s use of the term reagent indicate about his views of human subjects and of people in general?
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5.10 Describe Titchener’s three elementary states of consciousness and the four attributes of mental elements.
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5.11 In what ways did Titchener begin to alter his system late in his career?
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5.12 What criticisms had been made of the method of introspection before the work of Titchener?
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5.13 On what grounds was Titchener’s approach to introspection criticized? How did he answer his critics?
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5.14 How did Titchener distinguish between inspection and introspection?
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5.15 What was the role of retrospection in psychological research, according to Titchener?
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5.16 What additional criticisms have been made of Titchener’s structuralism? What contributions has Titchener’s structuralism made to psychology?
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Solutions A History of Modern Psychology - 10th Edition - Chapter 4

4.1 On what basis did Wundt conclude that a person cannot engage in more than one mental activity at precisely the same moment in time?
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4.2 Why is Wundt, and not Fechner, considered the founder of the new psychology?
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4.3 Describe the differences between “founding” and “originating” in science.
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4.4 Describe Wundt’s cultural psychology. How did it lead to division within psychology?
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4.5 Why did cultural psychology have little impact on American psychology?
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4.6 How was Wundt’s psychology influenced by the work of the German physiologists and the British empiricists? Describe the concept of voluntarism.
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4.7 What are elements of consciousness? What is their role in mental life?
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4.8 Distinguish between mediate and immediate experience.
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4.9 Describe Wundt’s methodology and his rules for introspection. Did he favor quantitative or qualitative introspection? Why?
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4.10 Distinguish between internal and external perception. What is the purpose of apperception?
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4.11 How did apperception relate to the work of James Mill and John Stuart Mill?
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4.12 Trace the fate of Wundtian psychology in Germany. On what grounds was Wundt’s system criticized?
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4.13 Describe Ebbinghaus’s research on learning and memory. How was it influenced by the work of Fechner?
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4.14 How does Brentano’s act psychology differ from Wundtian psychology?
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4.15 How did Stumpf differ with Wundt on introspection and on the reduction of experience to elements?
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4.16 What did Külpe mean by systematic experimental introspection? How did Külpe’s approach differ from Wundt’s?
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4.17 How did the idea of imageless thought challenge Wundt’s conception of conscious experience?
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4.18 Despite their many differences, what did the works of Wundt, Ebbinghaus, Brentano, and Stumpf have in common?
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Solutions A History of Modern Psychology - 10th Edition - Chapter 3

3.1 What was David Kinnebrook’s role in the development of the new psychology?
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3.2 What was the significance of Bessel’s work for the new psychology? How did it relate to the work of Locke, Berkeley, and other empirical philosophers?
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3.3 How did developments in early physiology support the mechanistic image of human nature?
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3.4 Discuss the methods that scientists developed to map brain functions.
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3.5 Describe Gall’s cranioscopy method and the popular movement that derived from it. How were they discredited?
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3.6 What was the ultimate goal of the Berlin Physical Society?
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3.7 Explain how developments in physiology combined with British empiricism to produce the new psychology.
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3.8 For what reasons did experimental psychology emerge in Germany and not elsewhere?
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3.9 What is the significance of Helmholtz’s research on the speed of the neural impulse?
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3.10 Describe Weber’s research on two-point thresholds and on just noticeable differences. What was the importance of these ideas for psychology?
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3.11 What was Fechner’s insight on October 22, 1850? How did Fechner measure sensations?
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3.12 What is the relationship between the intensity of the stimulus and the intensity of the sensation, as represented by the equation S = K log R?
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3.13 What psychophysical methods did Fechner use? How did psychophysics influence the development of psychology?
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3.14 Do you think experimental psychology would have developed when it did without Fechner’s work? Without Weber’s work? Why?
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3.15 What is the difference between inner psychophysics and outer psychophysics? Which was Fechner forced to focus on? Why?
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Solutions A History of Modern Psychology - 10th Edition - Chapter 2

2.1 Why was the defecating duck such a sensation in Paris in 1739? What did it have to do with the development of the new psychology?
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2.2 Explain the concept of mechanism. How did it come to be applied to human beings?
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2.3 How did the development of clocks and automata relate to the ideas of determinism and reductionism?
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2.4 Why were clocks considered to be models for the physical universe?
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2.5 What were the implications of Babbage’s calculating engine for the new psychology? Describe the contribution of Ada Lovelace to Babbage’s work.
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2.6 How did Descartes’s views on the mind-body issue differ from earlier views?
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2.7 How did Descartes explain the functioning and interaction of the human body and the human mind? What is the role of the conarium?
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2.8 How did Descartes distinguish between innate ideas and derived ideas?
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2.9 Define positivism, materialism, and empiricism. What contributions did each viewpoint make to the new psychology?
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2.10 Describe Locke’s definition of empiricism. Discuss his concepts of sensation and reflection, and of simple and complex ideas.
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2.11 What is the mental-chemistry approach to association? How does it relate to the idea that the mind is like a machine?
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2.12 How did Berkeley’s ideas challenge Locke’s distinction between primary and secondary qualities? What did Berkeley mean by the phrase “perception is the only reality”?
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2.13 How did Hartley’s work exceed the aims of the other empiricists and associationists? How did Hartley explain association?
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2.14 Compare the explanations of association offered by Hartley, James Mill, and John Stuart Mill.
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2.15 Contrast and compare the positions of James Mill and John Stuart Mill on the nature of the mind. Which view had the more lasting impact on psychology?
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Solutions A History of Modern Psychology - 10th Edition - Chapter 1

1.1 What can we learn from studying the history of psychology?
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1.2 Why can psychologists claim that psychology is one of the oldest scholarly disciplines as well as one of the newest? Explain why modern psychology is a product of both nineteenth-century and twentieth-century thought.
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1.3 In what ways do the data of history differ from the data of science? Give examples of how historical data can be distorted.
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1.4 In what ways have contextual forces influenced the development of modern psychology?
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1.5 Describe the obstacles faced by women, Jews, and African Americans in pursuing careers in psychology, especially during the first half of the twentieth century.
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1.6 How does the process of writing history in any field necessarily restrict the number of people whose work can be singled out for attention?
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1.7 Describe the differences between personalistic and naturalistic conceptions of scientific history. Explain which approach is supported by cases of simultaneous discovery.
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1.8 What is the Zeitgeist? How does the Zeitgeist affect the evolution of a science? Compare the growth of a science with the evolution of a living species.
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1.9 What is meant by the term “school of thought”? Has the science of psychology reached the paradigmatic stage of development? Why or why not?
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1.10 Describe the cyclical process by which schools of thought begin, prosper, and then fail.
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